Many of these subtypes matched those recovered at DE Bay during the previous year or that year’s migratory cycle, suggesting that IAVs present on these southern wintering areas represent a source of virus introduction to DE Bay via migrating ruddy turnstones. Twenty-five low pathogenicity IAVs were recovered representing five subtypes (H3N4, H3N8, H5N9, H6N1, and H12N2). We collected and tested fecal samples from 2823 ruddy turnstones in Florida and Georgia in the southeastern United States during four winter/spring sample periods-2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013-and during the winters of 016. At DE Bay, most isolates have been recovered from ruddy turnstones (Arenaria interpres), but it is unknown if this species is involved in either the maintenance or movement of these viruses outside of this site. Additional work is needed to document the longevity of these immune responses, if and how they correlate with protection against IAV transmission, infection, and disease, and if, as detected in this study, they adequately describe the true extent of exposure to IAV or specific HA or NA subtypes.Įach May for over three decades, avian influenza A viruses (IAVs) have been isolated from shorebirds and gulls (order Charadriiformes) at Delaware Bay (DE Bay), USA, which is a critical stopover site for shorebirds on their spring migration to arctic breeding grounds. Antibody prevalence to the HA and NA subtypes included in this study were consistent with the predominance of H4N6 in these populations during all years and reflected a broadening of the antibody response with age. A high proportion of NP seropositive ducks tested positive for antibodies to multiple HA and NA subtypes, and this was more common in the AHY age class. Neutralizing antibodies were detected against H3, H4, and H5 in all years as were antibodies to N1, N2, N6, and N8. The prevalence of antibodies to NP ranged from 60.8–76.1% in hatch-year (HY) birds and from 86.0–92.7% in after-hatch-year (AHY, >1-year-old) mallards indicating a high level of previous infection with IAV early in the fall migration season. Serologic results were compared to historic and contemporary virus isolation results from these same study sites. Here, we examine the prevalence of naturally acquired antibodies to nucleoprotein (NP), hemagglutinin (H3, H4, H5), and neuraminidase (N1, N2, N6, N8) in early migrating mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) sampled in Northwest Minnesota during staging and early fall migration in September 2014, 2015, 2017, and 2018. Population immunity may be an important driver of seasonal subtype predominance in waterfowl populations and may affect the potential for establishment of introduced IAV such as the Eurasian-like A/Goose/Guangdong/1/1996 lineage in these populations. Our review of the sampling materials and collection methods highlights that, although the use of some types of samples for specific applications is now consolidated, others are perhaps still underutilised and new technologies may offer future opportunities for an even wider use of non-invasively collected samples.Īlthough waterfowl are the primary reservoir for multiple subtypes of influenza A virus (IAV), our understanding of population immunity in naturally infected waterfowl is poorly understood. Terrestrial mammals accounted for 75% of all publications, and faeces were the most widely used sample. Stress and other physiological parameters were the most addressed research topics, followed by viruses, helminths, and bacterial infections. Thirty-nine percent of the papers were focussed on diseases, 58% on other health-related topics, and 3% on both. We retrieved 272 articles spanning from 1998 to 2021, with a rapid increase in number from 2010. We analysed the publication trends on non-invasive sampling in wildlife health and disease research and offer a comprehensive review on the different samples that can be collected non-invasively. Furthermore, the need for non-invasive sampling methods with a minimal impact on wildlife has become paramount in complying with modern ethical standards and regulations, and to collect high-quality and unbiased data. In the last decades, wildlife diseases and the health status of animal populations have gained increasing attention from the scientific community as part of a One Health framework.
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